How effective were attempts to protect soldiers in the war Essay

How effective were attempts to protect soldiers in the war - Essay Example This protection strategy was dependent on sniper protection who remained vigil above ground at a strategic vantage point where they would fire an enemy who approached the trenches. The safety of the soldiers in the trenches is thus dependent on the sniper. As a protective strategy this was quite ineffective as at sometimes the enemies got unnoticed hence attacking and killing the officers in trenches. The soldiers taking cover in trenches as a protective strategy for the soldiers was not successful as it resulted in loss of lives of the soldiers ( Grayzel 76). For the prisoner at war, they were kept in deplorable conditions that made them quite uncomfortable. The vivid explanation of the conditions in which they were kept with lack of enough food and general supplies highlight the lack of effectiveness in the protection strategies of soldiers during the World War I period. The letters reveal how they were kept in the barracks where they were quite crowded and no space for sleeping comfortable. Because of such like deplorable conditions, it resulted in deaths of prisoners of war in the process. Despite the fact that they were prisoners of war, as human right they ought to have been protected and treated in a human way. This however was not the case as they were left for dead and survival like pigs. Many human rights activists were of the opinion that such like treatment of prisoners of war was not an effective war strategy to protect the soldiers. The food was also rationed in one of the letters the soldier describes the condition as â€Å"the prisoners will have only 12 ounces of bread a day† ( Grayzel 77). This shows the great extent to which they were denied the basic human right of survival. Despite the harsh weather conditions the soldiers were not well taken care off as regards warm clothing in the winter. The sanitary conditions in barracks were also wanting. To a great extent the treatment and protection

N a response no longer than one page single-spaced, describe any Essay

N a response no longer than one page single-spaced, describe any obstacle(s) that you had to overcome to reach your senior year - Essay Example Since we were used to a very lavish lifestyle full of luxury, we faced difficulties because we had to cut our spending on everything from the electricity bills to eating out and shopping designer clothes. This was a huge change for all of us especially for me and this made me very much frustrated. When I entered high school, we did not have enough money to pay for my school but I was adamant that I wanted to continue my studies in the same school. Luckily, I came across an ad in the newspaper which was looking for a writer. I immediately applied for the job and got a call after a few days after which I was employed and I started working from home using my laptop. In this way, I was also able to earn money for my school fees and I also didn’t have to quit my studies.1 Work Cited Montez, Michele., & Vogler, Christopher. The Writers Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers. 3rd Edn. Michael Wiese Productions, 2007.

Social Construction of Female Gangs

Social Construction of Female Gangs Introduction In the UK, there has been very little research on female gang problem which has led to the vast amount of research from the USA being applied to the UK situation. Female gangs have been in existence throughout history although very little has been said about its members beyond their role as sexual objects. Hallsworth and Young (2008):176) following a home office report in 2008 state that the gang was for the first time explicitly linked to the problem of urban violence and rising weapon use in the UK (2008:176) and according to Campbell (1990) girls have been a part of gangs since the earliest accounts from New York in the early 1800s (1990:166). Female gang activity has been on the increase in the latter half of the twentieth century and as such, these activities have increasingly become violent. In this essay, I will elaborate on the meaning of gangs and female gangs using various definitions given by key authors. My main interest in this paper will be to discuss the historical bac kground of female gangs and the key debates surrounding these gangs in relation to the literature written by authors of different calibers and also the myths as portrayed by the society. I will also be interested in discussing the media construction of female gangs giving examples which will lead me to explore the disconnection between what the media says about female gangs and what the reality is. The term gang according to Schneider and Tilley (2004) does not have a single definition even though it is used universally by researchers, police, social workers, media and the general public (2004: xviii). The US National Criminal Justice Reference Service have defined the term gang as a group of three or more people who have a common name or sign and have an aim of engaging in criminal activity. In the UK context, experts have found it difficult to reach a consensus on whether or not gangs exist and how they can be defined (Aldridge and Medina, 2008; Alexander, 2008; Broadhurst et al., 2009; Hallsworth and Silverstone, 2009; Her Majestys Inspectorate of Prisons, 2010; Pickles, 2009; Pitts, 2008). Websters Dictionary (1961) gives us another definition stating that a gang is a band or group of persons who involve themselves in criminal or socially unacceptable behavior (1961:74). Female gang is simply a girl group or individuals who are involved in criminal activities and share the same names, symbols and signs as their identity. Female gangs do not have a visible leader and according to research that they tend to be fairly informal and they do not often have a visible leader. Campbell for example in the Huffs book on Gangs in America (1990) observes that in Los Angeles some gangs have veterinas or godmothers but she goes on to say that typically the members insist there is no leader and that decisions are made democratically. Campbells observation suggests that some girls clearly have more clout than others, but that this usually is not formalized as a leadership role. (1990: 178). In this review, I will discuss about female gangs drawing upon American research but with more emphasis on the rising phenomenon of female gangs in Britain. In order to accomplish my aim for this literature review, I will use primary sources, some secondary sources and other policy documents or government publications to enable me make conclusions and recommendations, identifying gaps in knowledge which may inspire other researchers into ideas for further research and also enable me to give my general opinion of how I feel about the social construction of female gangs by the media much of which I tend to disagree with. Literature Review Historical Background Many researchers and journalists have for a long time assumed that girls and women did not take part in criminal behaviors and therefore the issue of female gang has often been ignored. Campbells (1990) review on girl gangs states that, girls were defined solely in terms of their relations to male gang members (1990:166). Men have always been the point of concentration in investigating gang crimes and until recently, female gang members were seen as sex objects or tomboys. Literature has shown that researchers describe female gangs as weapon carriers for the male counterparts in addition, Moore and Hagedorn (2001) argue that even when describing female gang members as tomboys, researchers emphasized that the females motivations were focused on males (2001: 2). Looking at the UK context of female gangs, literature on girls and gangs has not been well developed because researchers in Britain have not seen the need to concentrate on female gangs (Campbell and Muncer, 1989; Sanders, 2002 ). According to Downes (1966); Parker (1974) and Scott (1956), the UK tried to apply American gang theories to address the problem of street gangs but these attempts failed over time leading to lack of data on gangs. This explains why there is no sound evidence as in the case of USA, for the proliferation of violent street gangs (Hallsworth and Young, 2008: 177). Female Involvement is not a new occurrence universally. In fact, there has been a lot of concern on the rise of female involvement in gang business over the years. Early studies found that there was a 50 percent increase in serious crimes by teenage gins between 1968 and 1974, compared to a 10 percent increase for boys and arrests of girls under 18 for violent crimes rose 393 percent between 1960 and 1978, compared to 82 percent for boys (CASA Website) . Miller (2001) compared youth gang involvement in 1950, and found out that youth gangs of the 1980s and 1990s are more numerous, more prevalent, and more violent than in the 1950s, probably more than at any time in the countrys history (2001: 263). In the early 1980s, Anne Campbell (1981) became interested and had concerns about female offenders which led her to conduct an investigation about the occurrences of violence amongst girls in Britain. Campbell, (1984) also did an investigation on female gangs in America and this led to her conclusions that the problem of female gangs was socially constructed. She criticized Britain for only concentrating on male gangs and ignoring female gangs and illustrated that in New York, women were very unlikely to organize in to gangs in big numbers because the female groups were only known to follow male groups (Campbell, 1995). Recent studies on girls and violence also shows that there has been an increase in violent and aggressive behaviour by girls and this has been catalyzed by media attention. Earlier on, people knew very little about girls violence because there was a belief that violence was solely committed by men. The study findings show very little evidence suggesting that girls are physically violent. Membership Academic research on gang membership in the UK is very sparse as mentioned earlier on and there is little evidence showing that young women have existential experience in committing violence. It has been difficult to ascertain the numbers of female gangs although there is a significant existence of the members. On the other hand, in the US, feminist researchers have tried to provide a more nuanced portrayal of the complex gender experiences of girls in gangs (Miller, 2001: 16). They have demonstrated that girls involvement in female gangs meets their gender expectations and experience heightened risks for physical and sexual victimization and also ascertains that gang membership provides them with a sense of belonging, giving them confidence and refuge from their abusive families (Campbell, 1990; Joe and Chesney-Lind, 1995; Joe Laidler and Hunt, 2001; Miller, 2001, 2008; Moore, 1991; Nurge, 2003). Many gangs appear to be more highly structured than delinquent groups but that does not disqualify the fact that they may still be seen as loosely organized. Several factors such as age, neighborhoods and so on are considered as the basis of gaining entry to these gangs or becoming a member. The gang sizes range from a member group of four or five and can go beyond a thousand. There have been different classification of gang groups such as the leaders, associates of the regulars then there are the peripheral members and finally the recruits. Most studies have shown that the reasons why females join gangs are because of friendship influence, it is seen as a form of solidarity and self affirmation. Research has indicated that those kids who grow up in dysfunctional families and whose parents are in prison may find it appropriate to join gang groups. Many youth gang formation is as a result of the present deteriorating economic conditions which are characterized by poor housing, lack of school structures and facilities and lack of laws that regulate violation of youth gangs. Being in a female gang may be a refuge from physical and sexual abuse at home. Young et al.s (2007) was involved in a research which directly involved girls and young women who had association with female gang and this gave him a different picture of their involvement. UK studies of female gangs have indicated that girls and young women are just portrayed as girlfriends to their male gang members but Young et als involvement in interviewing some of the females indicated that their groups were mainly composed of peers whose main reason for being together was plain friendship and denied that their groups were gangs. However in the US, Miller (2001) states that young womens group formation was through friendships from school, their house neighborhoods and not through any initiation rites to join these groups. Evidence uncovered by Young et al. (2007) stated that all the female groups interviewed referred to each other as their mates. Seven young women belonged to all-female groups and although they would periodically hang about with the local young men, this was not because these relationships with males were considered to be important or necessary. Indeed, from their testimonies it was evident that these women did not consider the males around them as friends or even friendly, nor did this group enter into intimate relationships with the young men they associated with. These young women determined when they associated with the males in their social circle and were not significantly influenced by the actions of males or male-dominated groups (Young et al., 2007: 143). A study conducted by Pitts in 2007 considers female membership in gangs as Reluctant Gangsters: Youth Gangs in Waltham Forest (Pitts, 2007). According to Pitts (2007), young women in gangs are often sexually exploited, sometimes in exchange for drugs and the relationships (they have with male members) tend to be abusive; one of dominance and submission and also some senior gang members pass their girlfriends around to lower ranking members and sometimes to the whole group at the same time (2007: 39). Pitts (2007) study states that the reason why young women, or girlfriends, are attracted to the gangs is mainly because they believe they can be glamorous or become celebrities within the group. It is unclear how members of female gangs are able to maintain long term roles and specific position given that the core members decide on the primary roles of the gang groups. Some members join the groups for a short period and others may move on to other gang groups after a certain period of ti me but in all these groups, the core members still remain in charge of the criminal activities. Statistics The most widely used data on female gangs has been from the nationwide surveys of law enforcement agencies. Miller (1975) stated that a survey conducted in the mid-1970s indicated that 10 percent of all gang members were estimated to be female and according to Spergel (1995), a national survey found that in 1992 only 3.7 percent of all gang members were female. This was due to the fact that 32 percent of the surveyed jurisdictions did not, as a matter of policy, identify females as gang members (Curry and Decker, 1998: 98). Four years later in 1996 there was an estimate that 11 percent and then 1998, 8 percent of all gangs were female (Moore and Terrett, 1998; National Youth Gang Center, 2000). It is noted that it is in small cities and rural areas where female gangs are more likely to be found and their ethnicities vary by regions (National Youth Gang Center, 2000). In 2003 the Channel 4 documentary Dispatches emphasized that the gang problem was increasingly spreading in the UK and as many as 30,000 gangs were functional and 57 percent included female members (Thompson, 2003). The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS, 2005) released the most recent figures with findings that there were 174 street gangs in London. In 2006 the MPS figures showed that there was a 66.6 per cent increase in gang membership raising the number of UK gangs to 50,000 of which 2500 of the total number were young women (MPS, 2006). The United States gang numbers according to recent police estimates indicate that there are 27,000 gangs with approximately 788,000 members (National Youth Gang Survey, 2007). According to these reports, there was a 25% increase in the reported numbers of gang and gang problems since the year 2001 where there was a low report on gang problems (National Gang Center, 2009). Curry, Fox, Ball, Stone (1992) and National Gang Center (2009) reported that in 2007 there were gang problems in large cities, 86% more than what was reported in 1983 which was at 50% when the gang problem was just beginning to grow. Media construction of female gangs Media representations on gangs and more specifically female gangs have played a very big role in informing the social reality by a social constructionist perspective. In the past two decades, gang crime activities have dominated the crime news and the quality of life among rural and urban dwellers has been eroded also, violent young females have been presented as a new and growing social problem(Batchelor, 2009:408). According to Batchelor (2009) girls have been perceived to be the same as boys especially in fighting to defend themselves (2009:400). Batchelor continues to argue that young women who involve themselves in male gangs have been used as carriers of weapons and drugs and in some cases the girls have been exploited sexually. News in the media has claimed that young women have acted as the heads of anti-social youth groups who commit crimes like rape, murder and violent robbery (Young, 2009). Many newspapers produce stories with an aim of attracting peoples attention and informing them on what they think the public want to read about thus making a lot of sales on the papers. The medias main interest had been to enhance its economic aspect by manipulating the public way of thinking about crime and its social context (Potter and Kappeler 1998). The main contribution of the media has been according to Best (1993:119), a contextual constructionism of gangs where the media makes certain choices of what to cover in the news which contributes to the social construction of the reality. Crime narratives and representations are, and have always been, a prominent part of the content of all mass media( Reiner, 2007:305), with sources such as newspapers and television documentaries playing a central role in creating public perceptions of crime and therefore influencing their perceptions about the extent of crime and the risk of suffering it (Treadwell, 2006:77). Media reports especially in the UK have not been backed up by concrete evidence on the wider female gang problems. The Centre for Social Justice (2009) states that media coverage has, at times, been suggestive of an epidemic in gang-related youth violence (2009:19). In the UK, television headlines and documentaries relating to gang violence and the coming up of girl gangs has been dominant and that has not been different in the case of USA where it has been reported that gang groups are armed, dangerous and prepared to kill (Hallsworth and Young, 2008:176). Despite the fact that gangs and gang activity has been seen as a social problem to society and despite the regular convictions from the news that has shaped such problems, a comprehensive and systematic analysis of newspaper coverage of gangs and societys war on gangs has not been undertaken. There have been extraordinary cases of female violence reported. For example the reported case of a frenzied attack of eight strangers which was enacted by Chelsea OMahoney, who was the only female member of Sergeant Crew, in conjunction with her male friends (Laville, 2005). This case signifies that there are existing modern girl gang members who offend the law. The press gave an impression that made the public perceive the girl involved as aggressive and one capable of extreme behaviour, a trouble maker who causes havoc in and out of her group and catalyses others to be involved in aggressive behaviour (Thompson ,2003). In the next section, I will analyze the literature review and the medias perception towards female gangs. I will explore the information given in order to see if there is a disconnect between what the media says and what the reality is about female gangs. This will aid me in making proper conclusion about the media construction of female gangs. Analysis It has been argued that reports on female gangs offending the law is very low compared to male offenders and noted that female violence is a relatively rare occurrence according to crime statistics. Various authors like Campbell (1995) have stated that Britain for many years had not developed any research on female gangs whereas in New York, female groups were only seen as followers of their male counterparts and could not possibly form gang groups to organize crimes. On the other hand, the press has had much to write on the papers and commentate in news about girl gangsters especially in the last ten years. According to Tara (2009) there have been news reports contending that young women are traditionally engaged in violent crimes. Reports have in excess claimed that many anti-social youth groups are now headed by young women and they commit crime such us rape, murder and robbery. Honigsbaum (2006) states that young women in the UK are cited to be amongst the most violent and aggres sive in the world. It is clear that there have been a few empirical studies on female gang membership especially in the UK although the media coverage of violent offences committed by young women has created a certain perception towards the girl gangsters. This construction of female gangs has also been through the statistical evidence that has been provided by officials from the law enforcement department. Comparing the literature on female gangs and what the media has had to say about this topic, it is evident that there have been gaps in research on female participation in gangs in the UK which is the same case as the American gang literature where else, the media has been successful in socially constructing the girl gangs even though its evidence is very scant. Over the years, most researchers have concentrated on investigating the male gangs, studying the criminal behaviour of men and ignoring the female counterparts. According to Pitts (2007), the female gangs have not been recognized or in some cases, research has been conducted in reference to the experience of men. In reality, female gangs have been in existence for decades but it has been difficult to come up with the true picture of the problem. In the case of UK, there have been claims that currently young women are more likely to engage in street gangs and these women are more likely to engage in serious violent crime. This information is not substantial because the media seems to exaggerate this kind of violent crime thus shaping the public perceptions of gangs. There is a problem of statistic as well. It has been noted that female gangs exist in larger cities but there is no evidence to suggest that female crime is a national problem, therefore the true problem cannot be identified. Unrealistic public attitudes towards girls gangs have been the order of the day because there has been misrepresentation of girls lives and this according to Batchelor (2001) has created a misdirected public policy. The media has been fond of relying on simple statistics and typical gang cases that have no evidence and this has complicated the discussions of complex socio-specific contexts of violence in girls lives (Batchelor, 2001). Young womens genuine problems continue to be marginalized and ignored as the media continues to give wrong information to the public thus making the girls become a problem. Batchelor (2005); Coy (2008) suggest that it is important that any steps taken to address problems of gang involvement by young women should be from the reality and should be able to acknowledge the yo ung women are active agents and victims. As I have discussed above ,most of the violence that is experienced by girls and young women, as both perpetrators and victims, takes place within either the family or their friendship group. This means that social work and probation practitioners need to give careful attention to the familial and peer contexts of young womens offending, putting in mind that both groups can be concurrently harmful and protective. (Batchelor, 2005) argues that if we are to working towards effecting change in young women offenders lives, we need to maximize on their involvement and participation in various positive activities. These activities should enable them relate well with their families and friends and also the social work teams in order to have positive relations. There is need for accessible and affordable leisure activities which can be effective in occupying the girls and young womens minds and address some specific needs like bullying and victimization. It could be argued that research in to the phenomena of the girl gang especially in the UK is barely adequate thus making it difficult to make quantifying conclusion of the girl gang problem. Much of this essay clearly states that crime statistics show that compared to male offending female violence is a relatively rare occurrence (Young, 2009:224), and any rise in female violence may not always be gang related. I will conclude this essay by indicating that a lot of information represented by the media is just assumptions with no evidence to back it and researchers can do more towards looking more into the problem. Conclusion There seems to be no concrete theory as to why girls of women get involved in violent crimes but there have been various factors that have been cited to have played a major role in influencing them to join gang activities. Parental negligence, poverty, teenage pregnancies, lack of education, ill health, early involvement in sexual activities and peer group influence are some of the factors that drive these girls and women into gangs. Researchers, the law enforcement system, school, community based programmes and families have ignored the fact that female gangs exist and have confined young female to victimization and this has resulted to the rise of female violence. This essay has considered the background information of female gangs, the definition of gang and female gang, the key debates surrounding these gangs in relation to literature written, also the media construction of female gangs and the myths as portrayed by the society. It is argued that many researchers have ignored females as gangs and the notion seems to be that female gangs and their members are pale imitations of male gangs (Spergel, 1995: 90). Due to lack of research, facts that have been written and reproduced in books about female gangs are based on journalists and probation officers reports and also the statements given by the male gang members. Looking at the past and current research on female gangs, it is clear that they do exist in the UK and the USA although the statistics given are socially constructed due to the fact that the gang related cases are underreported. Reliable statistics may show that the problem of female gangs is not as large as the media portrays it to be and with the media catalyzing the problem, it may have negative consequences such as labeling to girls and young women. Media reports fuelling a moral panic can also have an impact on how the community and the government responds to female gangs thus failing to tackle the needs of these female groups. I will conclude by saying that it would be important for researchers to further explore the problem of female gangs because I completely agree that they exist and need attention otherwise the problem will get out of hand if ignored. The media should stop exaggerating facts on female gangs and concentrate on finding out the true picture of these gangs.

The History of Computers :: Technology Computers Essays

The History of Computers To those of us that have grown up during the computer age, computers seem like a normal part of our everyday lives. The idea that only a few decades ago computers were virtually unheard of is inconceivable. Computers are now so essential that they basically run our society and the whole of the modern world. They track hurricanes, forecast the weather, predict natural disasters, control satellites and missiles and keep countries around the world in constant contact. The technology that revolves around the computer industry is forever changing and growing, becoming more advanced and doing things that seem beyond anyone ¦Ãƒ s wildest dreams. The development of computers during the last few decades is astronomical and could be one of the fastest developing inventions ever created. The dawn of the computer age can be traced back to the period of 1936  ¡Ãƒâ„¢ 1945, when the first computers were being built in several countries (Tomaselli vii). Although they came about as a result of the war, it is certainly safe to say they would have developed on their own in the business industry. Regardless, computer technology has grown by incredible leaps and bounds since the very beginning and as Barnes says,  ¡Ãƒ we have been living amidst the fastest technological revolution of all time ¡ÃƒÅ" (vii). Every couple of years something completely new and more advanced comes out and takes over the previous style of production and pretty much exterminate it as well. The technology is forever changing and constantly growing. There are so many technologies associated with the computer industry that it ¦Ãƒ s almost hard to keep track of. The technology that is most directly related to the greater society in this country at least is the personal compute r, or the PC. A personal computer can be defined as a computer built around a microprocessor for use by an individual, as in an office or at home or school. The PC, also known as the microcomputer, was developed from the semiconductor industry (Barnes 622). In 1968, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore created Intel and started developing a photolithography method to put three components on a single chip (Barnes 622).

Are Governments Controlling The Internet Essay

Prior to the 21st century society greatest inventions were the automobile, the telephone, the airplane as a means of communication and transportation. Now individuals are blessed with the Internet. It is commonly regarded that the Internet is a manifesto of technology that allows human beings to interact with one another using networking services. The Internet has broken down the barriers and means of traditional communication. In cyberspace, people can talk with each other regardless of location. It can be defined as a â€Å"unique medium† with no geographical location but available to anyone (p. 21). It is not only used for communication but information searching, listings of products and services, advertising of large/small businesses, and much more. In essence, the Internet can be regarded as a separate entity from our own physical world – a digital utopia. The question being raised is, with the large scale of the internet, how is it maintained or even controlled? Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu’s book Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of a Borderless World gives a perfect example of how the Internet is being directly (and indirectly) controlled by territorial government. As each section of the book is uncovered, it is clearly pointed out that national governments through control of local and global intermediaries and coercion exercise dominate control over the digital empire. The book is subdivided into three large sections. In the first section Wu and Goldsmith marks the impression to the readers that the Internet is in fact a â€Å"libertarian state† where users can freely express themselves. The authors argue at the commencement of the Internet there are no actual â€Å"rulers† or â€Å"governors† of the Internet rather it was the upheaval of a Digital American Revolution, that’s built on â€Å"language and reason and our fail in each other† (p. 22). The authors later indicate that it was open because it was willing to â€Å"accept almost any kind of computer or network†. Thus it is a society that is ruled by the humanity that resides within the Internet. â€Å"Humanity united might do better than our lousy systems of government, throw away the constructs of the nation-state, and live in some different but better way† (p. 7). Section two establishes that users from different geographical regions want their information presented in their local language. As the author pointed that language is one of the most important aspects on the internet. It gives the example that people in Brazil, Korea and France do not want English versions of Microsoft products but rather want a version they can fully understand (p. 50). As the next section unravels we start to notice how digital humanity needs rulers and starts to get involved how national governments are governing the borders of the internet. It proves that government uses coercion and local intermediaries to restrict and even block content that is on the internet. An example would be Nazi merchandise and hate sites appearing on French networks and even an incident in China where a 15 year old girl Liu Di was punished by the Chinese government when she was making an argument comparing the Chinese government and a prostitute. It also points out how controlling Governments can be a beneficial factor in regulating illegal activities such as file sharing and copyrighting. The final section of the book shows how the government aims to make the borders of the Internet a haven that protects its citizens from harm. This section explores the aspect of globalization and competing countries in controlling the Internet. Europe, U. S. and China all wishes to have a centralized power over the Internet. If two out of three countries that are in favour of online gambling while the one third is not, how can a borderless digital society solve this problem? The sections encourages decentralized governments to work together to adapt to people’s needs and respond in a more positive manner (p. 53). For the struggle of ultimate control lies within national governments – and a problem of clashing government interests and priorities can be a serious concern for the future of the Internet (p. 171). Wu and Goldsmith both agreed that this is the â€Å"beginning of a technological version of the cold war, with each side pushing its own vision of the Internet’s future† (p. 184). In order for the book to draw readers closer into fully understanding the Internet the authors must not only make a compelling argument but the style and construction of the book is also important. This essay will discuss four areas in which the book was successful or non-successful into helping readers understand the importance of national governments and their role on the Internet. The notable points in creating a compelling argument lie within the thesis, the method(s) of research, the evidence that supports the thesis and the overall evaluation/recommendation. The first point that’s important in this book is the thesis. The thesis is the main point the authors are trying to make throughout the entire book. In the book Who Controls the Internet Wu and Goldsmith stated their thesis in the conclusion rather than the introduction. Instead they decided to allure readers by telling a short story in the introduction to foreshadow readers into the overall point of the book. In my opinion the thesis of the book can found on page 180 where it reads â€Å"Beneath of fog of modern technology, we have seen the effects of coercive governmental force on local persons, firms and equipment† (p. 180). Ironically, this is not the thesis that users anticipated on hearing when they decide to read the book. On the back cover of the book it reads â€Å"a book about the fate of one idea – that the Internet might liberate us forever from government, borders and even our physical selves†. (Wu and Goldsmith) Wu and Goldsmith prompted readers with a general idea then throughout the book used examples and heated evidence to prove that idea wrong. It gives readers the perception that the Internet is in fact a challenge to governmental rule rather than the idealistic entity of freedom and liberty. The thesis was not always stated at the end of the book rather the author hinted their thesis throughout chapters to reinforce their main point along the way. For instance in chapter 5, Wu and Goldsmith talk about how local intermediaries are present and how government uses coercion to control these intermediaries, thus â€Å"ruling the internet† (p. 65). The authors stated that it would be extremely easy for individuals to â€Å"overlook how often governments control behavior not individually, but collectively, through intermediaries† (p. 68). The authors use the example of HavenCo to reinforce their thesis. In the book HavenCo was described as â€Å"the first place on earth where people are free to conduct business without someone looking over their shoulder† (p. 65). Shortly after, HavenCo became the object of negativity where porn and other offensive content were being hosted. Due to their business model they would not seek out cooperative intermediaries. However falling into a downward spiral, HavenCo became desperate so they looked towards national governments for assistance. However the government would not oblige since it was hosting offensive content and demanded that HavenCo remove the material. Of course, without this aspect â€Å"HavenCo was nothing†. And now without the support of powerful government officials and intermediaries HavenCo is now a â€Å"jumbled pile of network equipment, rotting and obsolete† (p. p. 84-85). The authors presents the readers with a clear and indirect thesis in each chapter, and as each chapter passes they are vividly trying to reinforce their thesis by providing real life evidence that happens in the midst of the digital society. Other notable examples that are highlighted in the book that supports the thesis would be the Chinese government sometimes with help from Yahoo, seize political dissidents and put them in prison (p. 181). Next, the government that are threatening Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and search engines and credit card companies with fines so that they can filter out offensive net communications. And, it is clear that Jon Postel and the Internet’s founders give up control over their creation under implied threats of governmental force. And finally, under the aspect of file sharing (where it was debated it would be hardest to control) governments have executed hidden but important ways to fuel coercion on the economy of file-sharing and â€Å"tilts the playing field to favour law-abiding companies like Apple† (p. 181). The authors have a very climatic way to communicate their thesis to the reader, By presenting support evidence and a strong conclusion they are in fact proving to readers that the government does control the internet. The next section uncovers the methodology that the authors used to present their topic. In order to prove their thesis they need an abundant amount of information. Not only does this information provide historical insight in the topic but it grants validity in the matter. In the book the authors have presented much needed evidence that governments control the internet, as each chapter is unraveled the readers are engulfed with powerful side stories of the lives of specific individuals that resided in the digital age. The book uses a combination of statistical information and encoded facts, personal biographies and appealing stories. If we direct our attention to the sources at the end of the book we notice that the authors use a hefty number of secondary sources. The only notable errors that are present in their methodology were that the sources they used were a little out of date. Old sources will lead to skewed results and that might cause a misinterpretation of the research. The book was written and published in 2006 but the majority of sources they used were within the 1998-2001 timeframe. Although they did use several sources that were recent (2005) it still does not change the fact that the Internet and technology are always changing in real time. With this change it’s rather hard to keep up and readers can be misinformed of with irrelevant information rather than significant information. Although with these slight flaws in the book, the methods were applied correctly in the sense that it is very easy to understand. They have broken the entire book into three parts; each part builds up information for that peak ending (or thesis). The methods were appropriate in the sense that the authors had a balance of evidence to support their claim. For example, the information gathered was not all focused on the government’s point of view but rather an equal split between government, organizations and individuals. It would be naive to think that a proper thesis can be proved without the support of evidence. Methodically the authors predominately still influence the readers with horror stories and statistics of government coercion on digital societies to prove their thesis. For example, the chapter on China outlines President Bill Clinton’s visit to the foreign land. Clinton observed that users required national ID cards before logging on. Regulated cafes also featured cameras pointed directly at the computer screen and police officers would occasionally monitor users right behind their back (p. 97). In China the Internet is far from being a liberating force but rather it is the major attraction for government surveillance. As previously mentioned Liu Di was arrested on personally insulting the government over the Internet, shortly after Liu Di’s story was printed in the press as a warming to all other civilians using the Internet. Throughout the book we see many stories that mimic the true horrors of the Internet, presented in a non-fictitious way to leaves readers shunned into believing the overall message of the book. Other factual occurrences that are displayed in Wu and Goldsmith’s methodology are the Kazaa/Napster case where digital piracy was at its initial state. Napster, a company located in the United States was battling with court officials to stay alive. With no luck, a simple U. S. ourt order was easily enforced and that led â€Å"to a total system collapse† (p. 108). Another factor that stands out with the evidence was that it’s very diverse in the geographical sense. The authors not only present their ideas from the American standpoint but tackles on other regions of the world. In the introduction the authors commences a deep discussion on global borders of the internet, the evidence and support was from a simply disgruntled individual that didn’t like seeing Nazi merc handise on the French site of Yahoo (p. p. 1-10). By using this intrinsic method of communicating the thesis they are successful in the sense of drawing readers. This chapter rather than supporting the thesis, they argue against it saying that the Internet â€Å"cannot be regulated†. Using factual data, they are offering both sides of the story in a very objective manner. This helps readers understand the thesis a little better and perhaps even raise serious questions on a political, global and technological standpoint. Who Controls the Internet is a very accurate portrayal of the digital society. It tells readers the important message that originally the Internet was designed to liberate individuals and it was designed to escape government and borders, but without the government mingling in affairs the Internet as we know it today wouldn’t flourish. One of the few appealing factors of this book is that it speaks out in a very clear and engaging style. Within each chapter the author conveniently uses sub-headings to divide important topics and that each chapter features several compelling stories. The two authors, who are both lawyers does an excellent job of communicating the legal issues to the readers without heavy use of legal jargon. Despite the many praises the book gets, it still has some flaws. In my opinion the flaws are contained within the unnecessary pictures and images that are included. Many (if not all) of the pictures are unneeded. For instance on page 4 it shows a rather large photo of the Palais de Justice, where the Yahoo case was litigated and similarly on page 66 shows a picture of Sealand where HavenCo was initiated. Although visualizations are nice they have no purpose in proving the thesis. How can a picture of Jon Postel who is described as â€Å"a rambling, ragged look, living in sandals, and a large, unkempt beard† help readers understand the dominate government forces on the Internet. In another part of the book Wu and Goldsmith dedicated half a page to Steve Jobs and as a background; shows a skull and sword insignia and was labeled â€Å"Piracy†. In retrospect the authors should have gotten rid of filler photography and replaced it with diagrams, which brings up the next flaw, the limited use of diagrams within the book. A diagram can help readers understand the point the author is trying to prove in either a passage or chapter. Back to the Steve Jobs example, if the authors showed using a diagram how Apple and national governments were combating internet piracy it would strengthen their thesis in proving that government controls most sides of the Internet. Or even a timeline that showed how government intervened with such programs such as Napster, Kazaa and then taking on Apple. This book appeals to a large audience of graduate, undergraduate students and professors teaching either politics or information technology. The benefits include that readers of this book can raise important questions and use these questions as the foundation for political debates. The content is not the only contributing factor in a well rounded book, Wu and Goldsmith does an excellent job in constructing the book that’s easily presentable to the reader. Even an individual with very little prior knowledge of the Internet can understand the book. Each term is defined when it is firstly introduced. Next, at the end on page 187 the authors implemented a â€Å"frequency used abbreviations† section and the definition in case the reader is having a hard time following due to the technological jargon. In conclusion, there are four areas that were used to critically analyze the book. They are the thesis, the methodology, the evidence used to construct the book and the personal evaluation. This book presents many important topics that relate to past, presents and futures of the technological era. It is telling a story where digital democracies suffer at the ends of coercive governments. It is not just powerful nations have the power to reshape the Internet’s architecture, more specifically it is the United States, China and Europe using their dominate power to reestablish their own version of the Internet.

Equal Rights for Androids and Humans

Equal Rights for Androids and Humans The concept of equality among all people was, unfortunately, not â€Å"self-evident† until the passengers on the Mayflower proclaimed it in 1620. A section of the Mayflower Compact reads, â€Å"†¦and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . (Commanger, 23) Written in 1776, the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence states, â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (US Declaration Ind. This phrase echoes the same beliefs as those expressed in the Mayflower Compact. Efforts to achieve equality among all Americans have continued to this day. The concept of equality has not been ignored by Hollywood, either. The concept of equality has been a central theme in various popular films over the years. One such film is Bicentennial Man. The theme of Bicentennial Man challenges the viewer to question where they think the line of equality ought to be drawn. Throughout history, humans have struggled with this concept.Naturally, individuals desire to be the best, and they try to distance themselves from those who are not the same; the homeless, the handicapped, people from different cultures, or those that look different. The film approaches this idea in a different manner because Andrew, the android â€Å"star† of the film, is not a person. It takes Andrew a period of two hundred years (hence the name of the movie, Bicentennial Man) to convince the World Government that he did, in fact, have a soul and should be considered an equal. Columbus, Bicentennial Man) The film’s idea of android equality is not (yet) an issue needing to be addressed in American society. The film’s concept of equality does, however, resemble the real challenges of human equality faced by many Americans throughout history. At the start of the movie, it was established that Andre w only existed to serve and obey his owners, the Martin family. His only purpose was to obey the commands of and attend to the needs of this family. Jeremy Bentham, a political theorist, believes this is an example of the concept of utilitarianism.In simple terms, utilization is using an object (or people) â€Å"as a tool† to achieve a goal. (Nelson, 205). A word that could be used interchangeably with utilitarianism is, of course, slavery. Bicentennial Man evaluation of android equality is a clear reflection of the challenges of equal rights faced by many Americans throughout the history of the nation. In the film, Andrew Martin, the android, fought for 200 years in order to be declared equal to the humans he once served.In the real history of America, however, African-Americans fought for more than 300 years for equal rights as Americans. If only reality was a swift as Hollywood! Works Cited: Bicentennial Man. Dir. Chris Columbus. Perf. Robin Williams and Embeth Davidtz. Ra diant Productions, 1999. DVD. Mayflower Compact. November 11, 1620. Documents of American History. Ed. Henry S. Commanger. New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1968. Nelson, Brian. Western Political Thought From Socrates to the Age of Ideology. 2nd. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996. Print.